An Introduction to Literary Nonfiction

Like literary journalism, literary nonfiction is a type of prose that employs the literary techniques usually associated with fiction or poetry to report on persons, places, and events in the real world without altering facts. The genre of literary nonfiction, also known as creative nonfiction, is broad enough to include travel writing, nature writing, science writing, sports writing, biography, autobiography, memoir,interviews, and familiar and personal essays. Literary nonfiction is alive and well, but it is not without its critics. Examples Here are several examples of literary nonfiction from noted authors: The Cries of London, by Joseph AddisonDeath of a Soldier, by Louisa May AlcottA Glorious Resurrection, by Frederick DouglassThe San Francisco Earthquake, by Jack LondonThe Watercress Girl, by Henry Mayhew Observations The word literary masks all kinds of ideological concerns, all kinds of values, and is finally more a way of looking at a text, a way of reading...than an inherent property of a text.(Chris Anderson, Introduction: Literary Nonfiction and Composition in Literary Nonfiction: Theory, Criticism, Pedagogy)Fictional Devices in Literary NonfictionOne of the profound changes to have affected serious writing in recent years has been the spread of fiction and poetry techniques into literary nonfiction: the show, don’t tell requirement, the emphasis on concrete sensory detail and avoidance of abstraction, the use of recurrent imagery as symbolic motif, the taste for the present tense, even the employment of unreliable narrators. There has always been some crossover between the genres. I am no genre purist, and welcome the cross-pollination, and have dialogue scenes in my own personal essays (as did Addison and Steele). But it is one thing to accept using dialogue scenes or lyrical imager y in a personal narrative, and quite another to insist that every part of that narrative be rendered in scenes or concrete sensory descriptions. A previous workshop teacher had told one of my students, Creative non-fiction is the application of fictional devices to memory. With such narrow formulae, indifferent to nonfictions full range of options, is it any wonder that students have started to shy away from making analytical distinctions or writing reflective commentary?(Phillip Lopate, To Show and to Tell: The Craft of Literary Nonfiction)Practical Nonfiction vs. Literary NonfictionPractical nonfiction is designed to communicate information in circumstances where the quality of the writing is not considered as important as the content. Practical nonfiction appears mainly in popular magazines, newspaper Sunday supplements, feature articles, and in self-help and how-to books...Literary nonfiction puts emphasis on the precise and skilled use of words and tone, and the assumption that the reader is as intelligent as the writer. While information is included, insight about that information, presented with some originality, may predominate. Sometimes the subject of literary nonfiction may not at the onset be of great interest to the reader, but the character of the writing may lure the reader into that subject.Literary nonfiction appears in books, in some general magazines such as The New Yorker, Harpers, the Atlantic, Commentary, the New York Review of Books, in many so-called little or small-circulation magazines, in a few newspapers regularly and in some other newspapers from time to time, occasionally in a Sunday supplement, and in book review media.(Sol Stein, Stein on Writing: A Master Editor of Some of the Most Successful Writers of Our Century Shares His Craft Techniques and Strategies)Literary Nonfiction in the English DepartmentIt might be the case that composition studies...needs the category of literary nonfiction to assert its place in the hierarchy o f discourse comprising the modern English department. As English departments became increasingly centered on the interpretation of texts, it became increasingly important for compositionists to identify texts of their own.(Douglas Hesse, The Recent Rise of Literary Nonfiction: A Cautionary Assay in Composition Theory for the Postmodern Classroom)Whether critics are arguing about contemporary American nonfiction for historical or theoretical purposes, one of the primary (overt and usually stated) aims is to persuade other critics to take literary nonfiction seriously—to grant it the status of poetry, drama, and fiction.(Mark Christopher Allister, Refiguring the Map of Sorrow: Nature Writing and Autobiography)

The Juvenile Justice Process Essay - 1293 Words

The Juvenile Justice Process: A Breakdown of the System Dana R Kirkland Strayer University Abstract Although based on the adult criminal justice system, the juvenile justice process works differently. Juveniles can end up in court by way of arrest, truancy or for curfew violations or running away. A youth may also be referred to the juvenile court system by school officials or a parent or guardian for being continuously disobedient. The juvenile justice process involves several different steps including intake, detention, adjudication, disposition and aftercare following release from a juvenile correctional facility. In this paper we will breakdown the numerous steps involved in the juvenile justice process as well as compared some†¦show more content†¦In other cases juveniles can end up in the court by way of truancy or for violating curfew laws or running away. A youth may also be referred to the juvenile court system by school officials or a parent. The juvenile justice process involves several different steps all leading toward justice and the rehabilitation of the juv enile. Once a youth has been introduced to the justice system they are on the path to become labeled as a juvenile delinquent. First, if a juvenile is stopped by a police officer for a crime the officer will determine what to do with the juvenile. The officer can either release the juvenile with a warning or go as far as arresting the juvenile and referring them to the District Attorney’s office. Once the juvenile is in custody they go through a process called intake. It is at the intake stage that the prosecutor (DA) determines whether to refer the case to juvenile court; similar to what is known in the adult criminal justice system as prosecution. It is at this stage that several factors are evaluated. The evidence is reviewed and the seriousness of the offense is considered along with whether or not the juvenile has a previous history with the juvenile court. After the evaluation and review of these factors a case may be dismissed, handled informally or the juvenile may be held in detention pending a formal hearing before a juvenile court judge. The prosecutor must file a petition to the courtsShow MoreRelatedJuvenile Justice Process and Correction834 Words   |  4 PagesJuvenile Justice Process and Correction Keith Betts CJA/374 September 30, 2012 Xander L. is a young man with a rough start in life, who is a known gang member, and has been in and out of the juvenile court system on numerous occasions. The 17-year-old young man has been involved in various crimes, such as purse snatching, breaking and entering, and drug possession. The juvenile offender previously served one yearRead MoreShould Juvenile Offenders Be Punished?1423 Words   |  6 PagesAmericans, justice is important. When harm is done to most Americans, often victims of harm say they want the juvenile offender to pay for what he/she has done. Making someone pay for the harm they have caused is an easy concept when it comes to adult offenders; however, what about juvenile offenders? Should juvenile offenders be punished for what he/she has done? When victims want the juvenile offender to be punished for the harm they have caused, this is called retributive justice. Often AmericansRead MoreJuvenile Justice And Criminal Justice1368 Words   |  6 Pages The border between juvenile justice and criminal justice did not endure the juvenile court’s first century. By the 1980s, there was general disappointment with both the means and the ends of normal juvenile justice. As with every other social repair efforts, it is difficult to say whether frustration with juvenile justice was born of erroneous concept or of wretched execution. The administering accepted by justice policy, however, was unmistakable. Juvenile courts began to adopt the sentiment andRead MoreThe American Juvenile Justice System1043 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican juvenile justice system had developed over the past century with a number of variables that makes it different from the adult criminal justice process. Juvenile justice advocates supports the differences on the youthful offenders. Juvenile crime policy over the course of the twentieth century talks about transferring the law’s conceptions of young offenders. Starting from the nineteenth century, man y of the youths were tried and punished as adults. However, treatment of juveniles in the UnitedRead MoreJuvenile Court Essay1138 Words   |  5 PagesThe first juvenile court was established in Illinois in 1899. In the late 18th century children as young as seven could stand trial in criminal court and could be sentenced to prison or death. The perception of children was later changed and they were viewed as persons with undeveloped moral and cognitive capacities. This allowed the state of Illinois to intervene in the lives of children providing protection and care or supervision. The mission to help children in trouble was clearly stated in theRead MoreJuvenile vs Adult Justice System Essay989 Words   |  4 PagesAdult Justice v Juvenile Justice System There is no question that if a person is involved in any type of crime they will at some time make their way through the justice system. However, when that person is an adolescent they will go through the juvenile justice system, as an adult would go through the adult justice system. Even though the crimes of each can be of the same manner or hold the same severity the punishment results can differ. The main reason for having the two different justiceRead MoreJuvenile Justice System And Adult Justice Systems1589 Words   |  7 PagesIn this paper, I will be discussing both the juvenile and the adult justice systems. There are several differences between the two systems, which may surprise you. I will be discussing many aspects within the justice systems. These include Terminology, Due Process rights, the process of Arrest to Corrections, Juvenile crime compared to Adult crime, age limits and waivers for the adult system and the different community correctional options, which are available to the offenders. The two systems shareRead MoreEssay on History of the Juvenile Justice System1477 Words   |  6 PagesRUNNING HEAD: HISTORY OF THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM Juvenile Delinquency: The History of the Juvenile Justice System Shandi Lillard Kaplan University CJ 150 – 02 Professor Raymond Keefauvor June 14, 2011 The History of the Juvenile Justice System The Juvenile Justice System is seen by many as being ineffective in treating the youth of this country, the programs are outdated and there seems to be little, if any hope that these youth will stay on the right path once released backRead MoreFuture of the Juvenile Justice System1280 Words   |  6 PagesFuture of the Juvenile Justice System The future of the juvenile justice system is uncertain. There is a struggle to try a find a way to serve the needs of the juvenile delinquents and issue them a punishment for violating the law. In order to improve the direction of the juvenile justice system, recommendations are needed regarding community involvement, law enforcement, courts, corrections, and the private sector. These recommendations address issues that the system is currently facing and offersRead MoreThe Juvenile Justice System Is A System Modeled To Provide1066 Words   |  5 PagesThe Juvenile Justice System is a system modeled to provide a legal setting where youths account for their wrongs or are offered official protection. A distinct juveniles justice system commenced in the United States over 100 years ago. The first juvenile court was established in 1899. The system is founded under a range of core principles. First, juveniles are different from adults and hence need to be handled differently by the Justic e System. Second, it is argued that juveniles differ from one

Literature Review - 2013 Words

Objective For the articles in my Literature Review, I have chosen one objective from my research proposal. The objective that I have chosen is the following „ « To inform Pizza Hut about the value of motivation and ways to motivate its employees Reviving staff spirit: a key to impressive service. (Customer Service). „ « Scott, Gail (Sept  ¡V Oct 2001) - Objective: This journal article is concerned with workers in the healthcare industry, who are demoralized and dissatisfied with their jobs. The article mentions the methods that successful systems use to help their staff members reconnect with the firm ¡Ã‚ ¦s mission and vision, and bring new life and meaning to their work. The various motivational techniques mentioned that are used in†¦show more content†¦- Tools: The survey was administered to respondents holding different profiles  ¡V 56% male and 45% female, in different age groups. Their occupations were mainly consultants (20%), managers (18%), professionals (11%), IT (6%), secretarial (2%), etc. The survey included the factors that motivates employees (table below) Factor % of Respondents who voted each factor as  ¡Ã‚ ¥Very Important ¡Ã‚ ¦ Being treated fairly/valued 78 Good relationships with colleagues 69 Good Current pay/salary 56 Job Security 54 Effective leadership 50 Good benefits 47 Feeling important and involved 45 Good relationship with boss 45 Training 43 Good location and environment 38 - Findings: It concludes by mentioning that it is becoming increasingly tough to retain good employees and many companies are realizing that motivation schemes are an excellent method of reducing turnover. From the above results, it is evident that workers want to be treated fairly and also want to develop good relationships with colleagues (best motivators). Motivating employees. „ « Davidson, Jeff (May 1990) - Objective: This article aims to determine how employee turnover in the restaurant industry can be reduced. This is an appropriate article for my research study because it concerns the same line of business that my research is concerned with. Also, the article satisfies one of my research objectives, as it mentions a list of guidelines on how toShow MoreRelatedEssay Literature Review1001 Words   |  5 PagesLiterature Review The purpose of this research project is for you to create a scholarly piece of graduate-level research and writing, which conforms to APA format. Competency in the APA format is required of all Business graduates of Liberty University, as set forth by policy of both the Graduate Faculty and the administration. You will research and write a literature review on a topic relevant to our course. 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A research literature review, as a process, is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners (Fink, 2010). As a noun, literature review is an organizedRead MoreLiterature Review793 Words   |  4 PagesU02a1 Building Your Literature Review Plan: Part One - Sheila Darden The plan to collect and organize literature that explains the history of retention starts with the collections of scholarly, peer reviewed articles that provide insight to the history of retention. The literature will be organized alphabetically at first then to gain a better insight into the history of retention the collections of scholarly, peer review articles will be organized according to the date they were published. The

Occupational Health and Safety Law OCHS 12015 †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Occupational Health and Safety Law OCHS 12015. Answer: Introduction Occupational health and safety is regarded as a discipline that contains a broad scope involving several specialized fields. In the broadest sense, occupational health and safety aims to promote and maintain the largest degree of mental, physical and social well-being of workers related to all occupations; prevent incidence of adverse health effects among all workers due to unsafe working conditions; provide protection from risks that may act as prerequisite to adverse health conditions during their employment tenure; and place and maintain an occupational environment that adapts to the mental and physical needs of the workers (Johnstone and Tooma 2012). This report will illustrate the occupational safety standards of a particular organization, the Do More Steel Manufacturing Company and will further elaborate on the responsibilities of all duty holders related to a particular accident that occurred in this company. Discussion Identification of duty holders, extent of duty and maximum penalties i.PCBU PCBU stands for a Person Conducting a Business or Undertaking and is a legal term that is used in accordance to the Workplace Health and Safety Laws to refer to businesses, individuals (sole traders) or organizations (company) that conduct a particular business. Any person who works for a PCBU is regarded as a worker (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). The primary duty of a PCBU is to ensure that the safety and health of its workers, subcontractors or visitors to the workplace are not put to risk by any of their work activity. This is referred to as primary duty of care. A PCBU who is a self-employed person must also ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, his or her own health and safety while at work. In the case study, the Do More Steel Manufacturing Company is the PCBU. It is entitled to provide a work environment that is without any risks to the health and safety of its workers and visitors. The reasonable practice duties of Do More include the following: Maintaining and providing safe structures and plant. Maintaining a safe work system. Ensuring safe handling, use and storage of the structures, plant and substances. Building adequate facilities that enhance worker welfare at times of work operation and allowing free access to the facilities. Creating opportunities for training or supervision to protect all workers from health and safety risks that arise at the company (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). Regular monitoring of the worker health status and workplace conditions to prevent any occupational illness or workplace related injuries. Moreover, the PCBU is entitled to ensure that the means of entry and exit at the workplace do not pose any risks to the health and safety of any concerned person (section 20); the plants, fixtures and fittings are without potent risks section 21); and the installation, use an carrying out of foreseeable activity related to the plant or structure does not affect the workers health and safety. Penalties- A three-tier penalty structure is set up by the WHS Act. The most serious category 1 offence includes reckless conduct in respect of duty (HSWA Section 47). This penalty is imposed when the PCBU recklessly engages in any conduct that exposes the workers or officers to death risks or other serious injuries. The maximum penalty for the organization will be $3 million. A category 2 offence includes failure to comply with duties that expose individuals to serious injuries, illness or death risks (HSWA Section 48). The organization has to pay a fine of $1.5 million on committing this offence (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). The category 3 penalty is imposed when there is a failure to comply with any health or safety duty (HSWA Section 49). The PCBU is subject to payment of a fine worth $500,000 on breach of this conduct. ii.Officers The duties of an officer of a PCBU are outlined by the WHS Act of 2011. The Act defines officers as an individual who is responsible for making decisions, or participating in decision making, that affects the entire or a substantial part of the concerned undertaking or business. Officers have the capability to significantly alter the businesss financial standing. Individuals who are only concerned with implementation of decisions are not considered as officers. The director or secretary of a PCBU is generally regarded as an officer. In addition to the Director, any person whose wishes or instructions are acted upon by a director, any administrator of the organization or a deed of arrangement, any liquidator of the organization and a trustee who administers the compromise between the organization and any other entity may also be considered as an officer (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). In the case study, Harry Leaves, the managing director is the officer of the Do More Steel organizati on. His duties include: Acquiring and keeping an up-to-date knowledge of WHS matters. Gaining an understanding of the company operations that include the risks and hazards associated with it. Ensuring that the organization has adequate processes and resources to enable identification of WHS hazards and risks for elimination (Zanko and Dawson 2012). Ensuring that appropriate processes are available to receive and accordingly respond to hazard and incident information in a timely manner. Allowing provisions for implementation of duty under the WHS Act. Verifying, monitoring and reviewing all operation processes. Penalties- For category 1 reckless conduct, a penalty of 5 years imprisonment or $600,000 fine or both are imposed on the officers (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). $300,000 fine is penalized for category 2 offence. Officers are liable to pay a fine of $100,000 on failure to comply with health and safety duties as a category 3 offence. iii.Workers A worker is a person who carries out any work in capacity for a particular employer or business or other PCBU. Workers can be any employee, apprentice, trainees, volunteers, contractors, sub-contractors; employees of any labour hire company or subcontractors and outworkers. In the case study, the safety advisor, plant engineer, foreman, mechanical supervisor, sitting line operator and accountant are all workers of Do More Steel Manufacturing Company (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). According to the WHS Act, Section 28, they should follow 4 duties as stated below: Taking reasonable care for their personal health and safety. Taking reasonable care that their omissions or actions do not affect health and safety of other person adversely. Showing compliance with reasonable instructions given by the PCBU. Cooperating with reasonable procedures or policies of PCBU related to workplace health and safety. Penalties- A category 1 offence related under Section 47 imposes a penalty of five years imprisonment or $300,000 fine, or both. Section 48 category 2 offence by workers leads to fine of $150,000. Category 3 offence on grounds of Section 48 penalizes them with $50,000 fine (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). Cause of incident The incident occurred due to violations of the rules and regulations formulated by the Work Health and Safety Act 2011. The act was built with the object of providing a nationally consistent and balanced framework that would secure the health and safety of all workers at workplaces. Several sections of the Act contained guidelines specific for PCBU, officers and workers that they should follow to protect workers and other individuals against harms (Schilling 2013). All the concerned officers and workers of the Do More Steel Manufacturing Company failed to abide by the regulations and did not eliminate the risks that occurred due to fault in the sitting line operation. Rob Hansens accident involved an instrument malfunctioning during its operations. The company purchases coated or uncoated steel coils, paints the coils followed by shearing or slitting as per customer requirements. The company has one shear line, one paint line and another sitting line along with mechanical, electrical and fabrication departments. The accident that occurred was due to fault in the functioning of the sitting line operations. The sitting line is robust machinery that is composed of various equipments driven by electric motors. Hydraulic energy is used to power the ancillary equipment. The accident occurred in the region of the threader table that is situated between the recoiler and the pinch rolls. A threader clamp is attached above the threader table and the lower half of the table could be lowered in a vertical position when it was not requited. The clamp gets driven up the threader table, out from the recoiler when a new coil is fed at the front. This leads to rise of the lower end of the threader table. Shutting off the hydraulic power for a considerable period of time led to lowering of the table and this made the clamp to creep down. Moreover, the front wheels also ran off the track near the hinged section. In order to prevent any hazards from this event, there was a need to insert a safety pin inside the locating lugs on the pinch roll housing and the clamp. The events that triggered the accident were shutdown of the sitting line for the weekend and failure to insert a safety pin before the hydraulic pumps were stopped. On investigating the reason behind creeping of the clamp down the threader table, the absence of safety pin was noticed and Dave Basse, an operator advis ed Ima Necte, the foreman to seek help from Craig Pollard to fix the clamp back on its rails. However, they failed to move the clamp back to the table due to a jam of the wheels against the table frame. It was then, when Rob Hansen was asked for to relocate the clamp. A cumalong or pull lift device was attached to the frame of the clamp and the pinch roll. The clamp suddenly pulled up on its track and shot up the threader table when Rob applied pressure on the lifting device. He was unable to get out of the way and slipped. This made the clamp shoot like a rocket and the safety pin lugs jammed and struck Rob in his chest and abdomen. It took a long time to remove the clamp and get Rob out. On disconnecting the hydraulic pump, the clamp was moved and Rob could be freed. However, on admission to the hospital, Rob succumbed to his injuries. Thus, a machine malfunction can be stated as the main cause for the accidental death. However, that is not the only reason for this case. Failure to comply with workplace health and safety guidelines was also responsible for this incident that could have been avoided. The guideline proposed by the WHS Act, 2011 states that protection of workers and other person against any health or safety harm should be of utmost priority for all organizations (Australia, S.W 2013). Continuous monitoring of health and safety practices and elimination of risks that can arise from particular plant or substances should always be followed by the PCBU. However, the Do More Steel Manufacturing Company failed to eliminate the defective sitting line operation even when the malfunction was brought to the ir notice on several prior occasions. Failure to implement a permanent solution regarding the working of the machinery and negligence on the part of the officers and the workers led to the accident (Worksafe.qld.gov.au, 2017). Identification of breaches All duty holders in a workplace are entitled to ensure that health and safety of the workers or employees are a priority (Bluff et al. 2012). TheWork Health and Safety Regulations 2011 and Work Health and Safety Act 2011 require people who have the duty or responsibility to ensure worker health and safety by managing hazards through elimination of risks by extent that is reasonably practicable (Australia, S 2011). In the case study, the primary fault was on the part of the entire company and its Managing Director, Harry Leaves. He should have known about installation or construction of the machinery and should have exercised due diligence to ensure that the installed structure did not create any effects on the health and safety of the workers (Archer et al. 2012). However, his inquiry about the unit design after the notifiable incident proved the breach of conduct. Although, Ima and Craig were watching the work from an area outside the safety fence, Rob was inside the fence. This was a major breach of conduct as adequate information should have been made available to the workers regarding the distance they should have maintained while operating on the machines. The workers were not provided with instruction or training that was needed for working safely. Moreover, the WHs regulations state that it is the primary duty of the management and officers to control any fittings, fixtures or plants at the workplace to ensure that such machinery does not affect the health and safety of any employee (Australia, S.W 2012). This regulation was completely violated. Statements from the Mechanical Supervisor and Plant Engineer indicate that the problem with the threader table clamp was not new and had been known to all workers for more than 3 years. However, no permanent steps were taken to modify the machinery. The construction of new paining facility in the engineering department made it problematic for the organization to change the maintenance design. The matter was not considered an urgent safety issue. The plant engineer had been assured that the company production department would adhere to the custom of inserting a safety pin and that a system had been designed to remove jamming of the clamp when it crept down the table. This made the plant engineer not consider the malfunction of machinery as an urgent need. Thus, it can be said that the supervisor and engineer did not comply with their responsibilities of carrying out tests of the setting line operation to ensure that it does not pose any risk to the safety of the workers (Reese 2015). Moreover, their action showed offence in relation to consultation with other duty holders and workers (Section 46, 47). The plant engineer was also at fault for not informing the electrical foreman of the recent changes made in the electrical circuit while the latter was on a holiday. Not informing the concerned worker about changes made in his work area is an act of negligence. A production foreman is mainly involved in determining the work priorities and verifies which tasks should be completed first. Though, Ima Necte did not receive any training on operating the machinery, it was his prime duty to inspect the work environment and verify absence of hazardous conditions (Legislation.qld.gov.au, 2017). Though, he should have been self-informed about the situation, he was informed of the clamp jamming by the sitting line operator. Another breach of conduct was done by the safety advisor. Conducting single day for prevention, injury reporting and basic safety programs are not sufficie nt (Macdonald et al. 2012). Supply of PPE and regular training should have been accompanied with focusing on the top 5-10 workplace hazards, tracking the performance progress and devoting time to reduce hazards related to change management, hit by an object or manual tasks (Australia, S.W 2012). Lastly, the workers themselves should have taken care to maintain their own safety. Conclusion Thus, it can be concluded that In order to implement a successful occupational health and safety practice, participation and collaboration is required from the workers and their employers together. There were major fault on the part of the organisation, the officers and the workers in showing compliance with the health and safety regulations, which led to the accidental death of Rob Hansen. References Archer, R.J., Borthwick, K., Travers, M. and Ruschena, L., 2012.WHS: A management guide. Cengage Learning. Australia, S., 2011. Work Health and Safety Act 2012.Safe Work Australia. Australia, S.W., 2012.Australian work health and safety strategy 2012-2022: Healthy, safe and productive working lives. Safe Work Australia. Australia, S.W., 2012.Work-related traumatic injury fatalities, Australia 2009-10. Australian Government-Safe Work Australia. Australia, S.W., 2013. Key work health and safety statistics.Canberra: Safe Work Australia. Bluff, E., Johnstone, R., McNamara, M. and Quinlan, M., 2012. Enforcing upstream: Australian health and safety inspectors and upstream duty holders.Australian Journal of Labour Law,25(1), pp.23-42. Johnstone, R. and Tooma, M., 2012.Work Health and Safety Regulation in Australia: The Model Act. The Federation Press. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018#pt.2-div.2 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018#sec.27 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018#sec.28 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018#sec.31 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. Available at: https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2011-018#sec.32 [Accessed 14 Oct. 2017]. Legislation.qld.gov.au (2017).View - Queensland Legislation - Queensland Government. [online] Legislation.qld.gov.au. 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New Deal Relief Projects Essays - New Deal Agencies,

New Deal Relief Projects After the major crisis of the banking situation had slightly blown over, President F.D.R. faced a new and much more prominent problem; and that was to provide relief and other charities for the unemployed and now many homeless families, along with struggling businesses and facilities. He quickly designed many new programs that would surely help these families that were in desperate need of it. The Public Works Administration (PWA) was designed to provide the public with certain necessities, without providing the politicians with the opportunity of corruption, Roosevelt watched over these proceedings carefully. The plans that were implemented at this time included huge public buildings, dams, irrigation and other flood- control projects. Another relief plan that helped businesses in particular was the National recovery Administration, (NRA) along with the National Industrial Recovery Act, (NIRA). These were designed to help businesses by eliminating unfair competition through a series of codes and newly established laws. The laws against combinations of large businesses were suspended as long as workers were guaranteed specific minimum wages, maximum hours, and the right to bargain as an organization. A very successful relief operation that was specifically designed for young men was the Civilian Conservation Corps, (CCC). This organization provided work for and unemployed and unmarried men. They received food and shelter and were paid about $30 a month for their services, and $25 of that monthly sum was intended on providing for their families. Over 250,000 men joined this group, living together in army-type camps. They performed outdoor work such as digging ditches, fighting fires, also restoration and construction of homes. They benefited from the workout, and their families

Essay Sample on the Pavlovian Model in Preparedness Theory

Essay Sample on the Pavlovian Model in Preparedness Theory Pavlovian conditioning is basic to learning and is obviously a critical factor in the acquisition of phobias. This model assumes that all members of a species share a common set of reflexes, hard-wired responses to certain stimuli. These unconditional reflexes are critical to survival. Pavlovian conditioning, which relies on these reflexes, or the stimulus-response relationship, has been shown to be fundamental to learning such that all animals learn to adapt to their environment based on this concept. The traditional learning model, based on animal conditioning research, has been extraordinarily useful but unfortunately very limited where phobias are concerned (McNally 284). First of all, one cannot assume that human phobias are the same as fears conditioned in animals in a laboratory, and they are not, as will be discussed later. Field and Davey also had the following problems with the traditional model (191-192). Phobias, for one, tend to be highly resistant to extinction, more so than other acquired responses. Some phobics have no memory of an aversive conditioning event at the onset of their phobia while others recall an associated traumatic event. Some persons become more phobic with successive presentations of the conditioned stimulus, even when this stimulus is unreinforced by an aversive conditioned response. Furthermore, not everybody who undergoes a traumatic experience will develop a phobia. In addition, while the Pavlovian model views all stimuli as being equivalent in their ability to create an association with a negative consequence, phobias should be uniformly distributed across a broad range of experiences (Field and Davey 192). It is obvious, however, that this is not the case, since some fears are more common than others. While most Americans, for example, live in an urban environment, they are more fearful (in both intensity and frequency) of insects, reptiles, heights, and storms than guns, cars, and stoves, even though nonbiological stimuli have a much higher likelihood of being associated with an aversive consequence. Also, human phobias of animals tend to be developed at younger ages, when they are still vulnerable to predators. Thorpe and Salkovskis have noted other pathways to fear besides the Pavlovian model of direct acquisition through conditioning: (1) indirect acquisition, for example, by observing phobic people, and (2) acquiring fear-inducing information, from reading car crash statistics, for instance (81-83). So other factors must be at work besides direct Pavlovian conditioning if we are to explain these variations. Coming from an evolutionary point of view, Seligman proposed a theory wherein an organism evolves a predisposition, or preparedness, to learn certain associations that are important for survival (406). These are instances of â€Å"prepared learning.† Associations that are irrelevant to survival are unprepared and associations that are detrimental to survival are contra-prepared.† Seligmans theory of preparedness was meant to explain the inconsistencies about phobias seen in the traditional behavioral model of learning. Seligman noted four characteristics of phobias that differentiate them from fears conditioned in the laboratory: (a) ease of acquisition, (b) irrationality, (c) belongingness, and (d) high resistance to extinction (qtd. in McNally 295). Ease of acquisition refers to the number of trial repetitions required to elicit a fearful response from the stimulus. In the case of phobias, a single trial can be sufficient and often is. Irrationality, or noncognitiveness, refers to the fact that a phobic will continue to be fearful in the presence of the object of fear even after it is clear that no threat exists. Belongingness is the quality a person recognizes when realizing that a stimulus and response are paired, such as the object of a phobia and the threat it posed in prehistoric times. A high resistance to extinction is even today the hallmark of a phobia. It is, indeed, one of the most challenging aspects of phobias. Mineka has been a strong supporter of preparedness theory (199). It had been thought that monkeys were innately fearful of snakes; however, Mineka demonstrated that when first exposed to a snake, a lab-reared monkey will show no fear. It will, however, demonstrate fear if the mother is present upon first exposure; that is, it learns to be afraid by observation of its mother. But this behavior did not carry through to nonfrightening situations and remained specific to biological stimuli. It was concluded that the potency and rapidity of observational learning in association is due to the evolutionary significance of the biological stimuli (Mineka 239-240). But what of differences between individuals? The Pavlovian model assumes that inborn reflexes are shared by all members of a species. Ãâ€"hman and Mineka believe that humans are genetically predisposed with the ability to associate fear with stimuli that threatened the survival of our earliest ancestors (6). Since this is a genetic mechanism, and there are genetic differences among humans, some people will be more or less fearful than others, depending on the situation. Ãâ€"hman believes that although humans are in general prepared to acquire fears of ancestral dangers easily, some individuals must be more prepared than others to acquire specific fears. These super-prepared humans are, he proposes, vulnerable to phobias (qtd. in Ledoux 229). Snakes were found to be among the most prevalent of human phobias, with close to 40% of females and 12% of males in New England reporting an intense fear of them. The authors noted the fact that primates, the animals closest to us on the evolutionary scale, also commonly fear snakes, although captive primates were consistently less fearful than primates in the wild. These observations are strongly consistent with the evolutionary role for fear. The adaptive nature of this fear is reinforced by the fact that large snakes regularly attack primates in the wild. Mineka and Ãâ€"hman recently proposed the concept of a fear module, a behavioral module with the following four main characteristics: selectivity of input (the central tenet of preparedness theory), automatic activation, encapsulation (where a learners cognitive skills are focused in some areas and not others), and a dedicated neural apparatus (931-933). The appeal of this concept is that it is allows for the neurobiological point of view of fear conditioning. Mineka and Ãâ€"hman also proposed two levels of learning in fear conditioning, based on learning through ontogeny and phylogeny (928). There is a basic associative level of learning, evidenced by automatic emotional responses, controlled by the amygdala. Then there is the cognitive level of contingency learning, controlled by the hippocampus. Fear learning in human conditioning with fear-relevant stimuli activates both levels, but fear learning with fear-irrelevant stimuli tends to occur only at the cognitive level, unemotionally. It is important therefore to note that fears created in the laboratory in response to survival-irrelevant stimuli (e.g., auditory cues such as buzzers) involve unprepared learning and therefore offer a poor framework within which to conduct experiments on human phobias. Neuroscience looks at phobias from the point of view of neural circuitry, more specifically the amygdala and a variety of complex hormones, and this has been written up extensively in the literature. But even in the face of such technologically advanced research, the theory of biological preparedness still plays a role. It has been shown that conditioning to fear-relevant stimuli, including angry facial expressions, is less resistant to extinction than other conditioning to neutral stimuli and can even be acquired through visual masking techniques (LaBar and Cabeza 55). But with the rise of cognitivism, the theory of preparedness fell into disfavor with some. Lovibond, Siddle, and Bond proposed an alternative theory to explain resistance to extinction: selective sensitization, where a pre-existing response tendency is activated by a perceived threat (449). This phenomenon explains why many phobic disorders arise when the fear-relevant situation is experienced after a traumatic or stressful event, rather than before it, as required by conditioning theories (Lovibond, Siddle, and Bond 452). Gray and McNaughton noted in particular how the skin’s conductance response is also associated with the orienting reflex, which can tarnish the results of preparedness studies, since most use the skin’s galvanic response to gauge the degree of fear (306-312). Harris even went so far as to state a number of interpretive problems with Watson and Raynor’s famous conditioning of Little Albert (151-158) and Field and Davey pointed out the phenomenon of rumination influencing the perceived future threat of a fear-related stimulus (197). When McNally conducted an extensive review of the research on phobias to see how well preparedness theory stood up, he found no evidence that acquisition was any faster and had problems supporting the view that there was lack of rationality (295). He did, however, find much evidence demonstrating that extinction is slower for prepared learning (McNally 292). Perkins attacked Seligman’s archetypal yawning dog by showing that dogs can indeed be conditioned to yawn, even though it is a contraprepared learning task (138-144). The author even stated, It is proposed to limit Preparedness Theory to physiological preparedness, and that psychological preparedness either be revised (to exclude dogs yawning on cue) or abandoned (Perkins 138). One problem with preparedness theory is that it involves a circular definition. We define preparedness in terms of the ability to learn quickly because of a biological predisposition. However, how can we then tell if there is a biological predisposition? Because of the ability to learn quickly? This lack of underlying theory is one of the criticisms the cognitive psychologists have and it will hopefully be addressed eventually. But despite this, preparedness theory has held up well through the decades and today enjoys its status among even the most sophisticated conditioning models, which tend to be a mix of behavioral and cognitive theories. And theories, if they are to survive, must change and adapt; even if Seligmans original statement of preparedness theory was lacking in areas, it has benefited greatly from new research. In response to criticism from the cognitivists, the theory evolved and can now explain many of the problems that were pointed out in the earlier literature. It should be mentioned that the field of psychology has evolved and branched out to the point where only a melting pot of specialized theories, from traditional behaviorism to the most advanced neuroscience, can hope to explain the complexities of the mind.

Investment in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Investment in Education - Essay Example The development of science and technology also plays a vital role in defining the infrastructural growth of a country. Science and Technology growth help to achieve the national goals such as increasing employment opportunities, raising standard of living, reduction in poverty level, improving literacy rate, protecting the environment, strengthening the bargaining powers. Education, research and technology works as instruments for accelerating development and determinant of net income of the country. Thus they should receive special attention in national planning. It is evident that capitalizing on investments in science and technology is a vital for every nation. Country should keep on updating their strategies regarding R&D. The science and educational policies must strive for continual improvement in the institutions, and strategies that contribute to superior research and effective capitalization. Capitalization appears to be quite healthy in the United States, delivering significant benefits to the nation. Funding in scientific research is considered to be long term investment in developed nations like United States. ... What is emerging from this priority is the close association of education and economical growth. Accelerating the rate of growth and rate of productivity can basically be accomplished by stimulating and supporting scientific education in universities. Capitalization on science and technology is a major national strength, although there is much room for improvement. The United States faces long-term challenges in maintaining and enhancing our ability to capitalize. Following are some steps which can be undertaken - Government should pay close attention on long-term science and engineering research. Evaluations of the importance of capitalization should be done to seek and identify the long-term contributions of research to meeting national goals. Governments should ensure that individuals and institutions continue to contribute to capitalize research process. Universities should expand their contribution by continuously updating their policies which effect capitalization. Universities, cooperating with science and engineering societies, government, and industry, should develop required manpower and encourage student to contribute in research process. Industry, universities, and government must recognize the importance of lifelong learning for the nation's science and engineering human resources. Governments, industries, and universities should continue to experiment with partnerships A good education system is an essential component which defines country's progress. The word education contains educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related to educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and ducere, "to lead".